As a result of the brilliant leadership of Gustavus Adolphus during the 30 Years War, Sweden became the dominant military and commercial leader of Northern Europe, effectively controlling the Baltic Sea and the surrounding areas. This led to conflicts between the traditional opponents of Sweden; Denmark, Russia, and Saxony-Poland. In 1799, Peter the Great of Russia, wanting an outlet to the Baltic Sea, formed a grand alliance between these three powers, and in 1700 The Great Northern War began.

What looked like an easy victory for the alliance turned into disaster. Denmark was quickly dealt with through a lightening offensive in which Swedish forces landed on Jutland, and removed Denmark from the war. In August of 1700, Charles XII of Sweden then turned against the Russians. Outnumbered 5 to 1, the Swedes crushed the Russian forces at Narva. Instead of following up this massive victory against the Russians, and bringing Russia to terms, the young Swedish king turned his forces against what he considered was his last opponent; Augustus of Saxony-Poland. During 1701 and 1702, the Swedes fought and defeated the forces of Saxony-Poland, and Poland was severed from Saxony. A pro-Swedish king was installed in Poland, but Saxony stubbornly continued its fight against Sweden. The war between Sweden and Saxony continued until 1706 when Saxony was forced to terms.

While the Swedes were fighting against Saxony, Peter the Great took that opportunity to reform and rebuild his army. The Swedish king believed the Russians to be a sullen defeated enemy and no threat. Instead he faced a renewed and energized Russia with a new and overwhelming army. During the years after Narva, Peter the Great rebuilt his army, and brought reforms to the entire nation that made Russia a more powerful country. Work began on St. Petersburg, Peter’s gateway to the West, and all internal dissent was crushed. By 1707 Sweden looked to the East and was dismayed at what it saw. In January of 1708, a Swedish army began an offensive against Moscow. The Swedes won many battles, but could not bring the Russian army to defeat. The Russians continued to retreat burning all in their wake, leaving nothing for the Swedes to eat. After suffering many inconclusive defeats, the Russians counter-attacked at Lesnaia, catching the Swedish supply train off-guard. The Swedes’ supplies were either captured or destroyed. Then an unusually harsh Russian Winter delivered the most punishing losses of the war against the Swedes. During the winter, the Swedes continued to fight and defeat the Russians, but after each battle the Swedes were fewer and weaker. The Russians on the other hand were able to make up all losses and then some. The Swedes were hoping for another dramatic confrontation like Narva, but it never came. Instead the dogged Russians continued to fight on. Finally in July of 1709 at the Battle of Poltava the Swedes were dramatically defeated. Charles XII was forced to escape into Ottoman held territories where he found temporary protection and support.

After the Battle of Poltava, the alliance between Saxony, Denmark and Russia was resumed. The Danes invaded Sweden, Prussia and other German states entered the war against Sweden, and Saxony reinstated its claim on Poland. The Swedes fought back without their king, and surprised the alliance with their resilience. Charles XII escaped from Turkey, and managed to return to Sweden. He was intent on defeating the formidable alliance against him: Russia, Denmark, Saxony-Poland, Prussia and Hanover. Sweden was not able to obtain any allies. Seeing the hopelessness of fighting a defensive war against such forces, Charles decided to launch yet another offensive, this time against Norway. In 1716, he attacked Norway hoping to discourage the allies from attacking Sweden, and the Danes in particular by threatening their northern possessions. Although the Norway campaign was not a dramatic success for Sweden, it did divert an attack upon Sweden by the combined armies of the alliance. Furthermore, the alliance was showing signs of strain. The Russians were upset at being excluded from many actions, and the other allies were becoming hesitant at the apparent strength of Sweden. What had appeared a year before to be a certain victory against a weakened Sweden now seemed a more dangerous and questionable affair. Charles XII embarked upon a mission to rebuild and restore the empire he had lost in the fighting.

By 1718, Charles XII of Sweden had rebuilt his forces, and launched another offensive against Norway. During the fighting he was killed while besieging a fortress. Without the absolute power of Charles XII, the Swedes lacked the will to continue the fight. Various treaties were signed, and by 1721 the war was over. Sweden had lost most of its foreign possessions, and was no longer the dominant power in the Baltic Sea region. That distinction now rested with Russia.

The War of the Spanish Succession was a conflict arising from the disputed succession to the throne of Spain after the death of the childless King of Spain, Charles II. The initial negotiations for succession to the Spanish throne involved the chief claimants: Philip, son of Louis XIV of France; Archduke Charles (later Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI), son of Emperor Leopold I; and Joseph Ferdinand, electoral prince of Bavaria. Each candidate was supported, and in turn opposed, by a group of European powers. Both England and Holland, opposed to the extension of either French Bourbon or Austrian Hapsburg power into Spain, and therefore favored Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria as a middle-of-the-road compromise. The French obviously favored the Bourbon Philip, and the Imperialist alliance led by Austria supported the Hapsburg Charles. In 1698 an agreement was reached called the First Partition Treaty in which Joseph Ferdinand was to get the crown, and the Spanish territories in the Low Countries would go to go to Austria and France. However as fate would have it, Joseph Ferdinand died before Charles II, and on his death bed Charles named Philip, duke of Anjou, as the successor to the Spanish throne.

When Philip took the Spanish throne as Philip V, his grandfather Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands. The former anti-French alliance from the War of the Grand Alliance was revived in 1701, and Britain, Holland, Austria and most of the German states went to war against France. France was initially supported by Spain, Portugal (Car Hire Portugal) , Bavaria and Savoy, with Portugal changing sides in 1703.

The British forces, led by the Duke of Marlborough, won a series of victories over France between 1704 and 1709, that forced the French out of the Low Countries and Italy. The Imperial general, Eugene of Savoy, also won notable victories. In 1711 conflicts within the alliance led to its collapse, and peace negotiations began in 1712. The war concluded with the Peace of Utrecht in 1713, which marked the rise of the power of Britain at the expense of both France and Spain, and the Treaties of Rastatt and Baden in 1714.

After the death of Charles II, his brother became James VII of Scotland and James II of England. Due to his high handed despotic policies as well as conflicts over religion, the English parliament invited his son-in-law, William of Orange, to become King of England. William of Orange accepted the invitation and arrived in November 1688, forcing James to flee the country. William became William III of England. At this time England and Scotland were two separate countries that shared only a common monarch. In Scotland it took until April 1689 for a Convention of the Estates to decide to recognize William as William II of Scotland. William’s shrewd behavior and understanding of political matters gave him an edge over the outraged, yet ineffectual, James. Those who supported the claims of James VII and tried restore him to the throne became known as Jacobites. Thus began a series of uprisings, mostly in Scotland and Ireland, which eventually led to the defeat of not only James VII, his eldest son James Francis Stewart (the Old Pretender) and his son Charles Stewart (Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender) and their goal of reinstating their claim to the thrown, but also led to the effective destruction of Scotland as an independent state, and some would say a free people.

The First Uprising was in 1689. John Graham, Viscount of Dundee, raised a small army and won a smashing victory in July 1689 at Killiecrankie only to be killed just as the battle was won. However, at the battle of Dunkeld, the Jacobite resistance in Scotland was suppressed. In Ireland, William personally defeated the Jacobites at the Battle of the Boyne in July of 1690. James fled back to France along with over 10,000 Irishman who became known as the Wild Geese.

In 1707, England and Scotland were united (the Union) causing a great deal of dissatisfaction in Scotland. The Jacobites effectively used nationalist sentiments to win support in Scotland when in reality they were seeking to reinstate their claim to England as well as Scotland. The Second Uprising occurred in 1708, and was nothing more than an aborted invasion from France. In 1715, the Third Uprising took place. It was a bungled affair led by an unscrupulous Scottish politician, John Erskine, Earl of Mar, who ended up changing sides after he had convinced everyone to revolt. The rebellion was put down after a few sharp engagements. The son of James VII, James VIII (the Old Pretender), landed in Scotland too late to do anything, and was forced to retreat back to France. In 1719, the Fourth Uprising, involved a small number of Spanish troops which failed to bring about any active support.

It was not until 1745, that the Fifth (and last) Uprising took place. Charles Stewart (Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender) landed in Scotland and met with mixed results. He eventually mobilized a large and well organized rebellion. The English commander General John Cope was defeated at Prestonpans, and Charles and the Jacobites took control of Scotland. They then marched into England proper with the hopes of raising the English countryside in support of their cause. Instead they were forced to retreat in the face British forces that vastly outnumbered his own. On Christmas Day the Jacobite army entered Glasgow and forced the pro-government city to re-supply them. On January 17, 1747, the Jacobites defeated another government army at Falkirk, but were unable to get any real benefit from the victory. Time was against the Jacobites. Low on supplies and without funds, the Jacobites and Charles were becoming desperate. In April 1746, against the advice of his commanders, Charles personally led his troops in a hopeless charge at Culloden. Outnumbered, half starving, and short on supplies, the Jacobites charged the cannons of the fresh and well supplied government forces. Few of the Jacobites even made it to the government lines. After the Battle of Culloden, the Jacobite cause was dead, and the Highland culture and way of life were virtually destroyed.

Often referred to as the Father of the United States Financial System, Alexander Hamilton is one of the few Founding Fathers who does not have a major monument in his honor. Perhaps it is because of the fact that he died while dueling against Aaron Burr, or because of his sometimes caustic personality, or perhaps because he was often the target of rumors and scandal. Whatever the reason, many have responded that if Alexander Hamilton does not a specific monument, the existence of the United States itself is the greatest monument to Alexander Hamilton’s vision of a powerful and rich future based on free commerce and industry.

Alexander Hamilton was born under humble circumstances on the Caribbean island of Nevis in 1755. After financial difficulties, his mother moved to the Virgin Island where she owned a small shop. He grew up poor, and with little opportunities. All the same Alexander Hamilton was noticed by some important residents of the island, and was given a scholarship to go to New York to study. He arrived in tumultuous times. Revolution was in the air, and Hamilton immediately gravitated to the revolutionary cause.

When the American War of Independence began, Hamilton was in the thick of it. His cool head and professional demeanor drew the attention of General George Washington. Soon Hamilton became Washington chief aide. During the Battle of Yorktown, Hamilton was given command of one of the assault teams that overran a vital British fortification, and Hamilton became a hero of the Revolution.

When the war was over, Alexander Hamilton returned to New York and completed his studies to be a lawyer. His law practice thrived, but Hamilton himself was deeply dissatisfied. He saw the loose confederation of states that existed after the Revolution and its weak central government as a terrible danger that would lead the newly independent nation to disaster. As such he was one of the first proponents of strengthening the federal government. When a Constitutional Convention was called, he was one of the delegates from New York and actively participated in the drafting of what was to become one of the most important documents in the history of mankind. It was during the ratification process of the Constitution that Hamilton’s star shone brightest. Of the three authors who contributed to the vitally important Federalist Papers, Hamilton’s contribution was by far the most profound.

After the Constitution was adopted, in large measure due to the efforts of Alexander Hamilton, George Washington was elected President. Alexander Hamilton became the first Secretary of the Treasury, and inherited a financial catastrophe. The country was heavily in debt, had no established method of raising revenue, and was close to ruin. His tireless efforts created the first tax system, encouraged a “national” economy, and helped to stabilize the financial markets at a time when chaos was the norm.

Soon Alexander Hamilton became leader of the Federalist Party, a position which brought him into direct conflict with the Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson. The animosity between Hamilton and the Republicans initially stemmed from differing ideologies and visions on how the United States should be governed, but soon grew to profound personal hatreds that went far beyond simple ideological rifts. In the end, Aaron Burr, a frustrated Republican, challenged Hamilton to a duel in July of 1804, and with one shot ended Alexander Hamilton’s life.

The Seven Years’ War (1756 - 1763) pitted Great Britain, Prussia and Hanover against France, Austria (car hire Austria), Russia, Sweden, and Saxony. Later Spain and Portugal was drawn into the fighting. In many ways it was the first “world war”. Most major European nations were involved, and the conflict spanned the globe. In North America, in present day Canada and the United States, the war between Britain and France over control of the North American colonies was called the French and Indian War. In India, the war was called the 2nd Carnatic War.

The Seven Years War may be viewed as a continuation of the War of the Austrian Succession in which the growing power of Prussia, under the control of the dynamic Frederick the Great, defeated Austria and gained the rich province of Silesia.

However, Austria was not satisfied with this situation, and worked to counter the growing Prussian threat. In order to defeat Prussia, and regain its lost provinces, Austria convinced its old enemies France and Russia to form an alliance against Prussia. Prussia’s only allies were Great Britain and Hanover (a British territory), which felt threatened by France. The alliance between Great Britain and Prussia was logical in light of British naval power, and Prussia’s formidable land force on continental Europe. After the War of Austrian Succession the Austrian army had undergone military reforms that mirrored the Prussian system in many ways making it a much more formidable force. However, the Prussian military, directly led by its energetic king, Frederick the Great, was still the most powerful force in Europe. Even though Prussia was a relatively small country, its military was beyond compare.

Most historians declare that the war began in North America in 1754 involving fighting between Britain and France in the Ohio River Valley. In May of 1756, Great Britain declared war on France triggering a series of escalations that resulted in all out war. Frederick the Great, realizing that his enemies were using the war between Great Britain and France as a pretext to launch a war against Prussia, decided to attack first.

Prussian forces took the initiative in 1756, and launched a lightening campaign against Saxony, one of the allies of Austria. Prussia was able to destroy the Saxon army before it could be relieved by Austrian forces. Although outnumbered and attacked from all directions, Prussia was able to retain the initiative during the first few years of the war in Europe. However, as the war dragged on, and Prussia was unable to dramatically defeat any of its major enemies things began to turn against the Prussians. The years 1759, 1760 and 1761 were dark years for the Prussians, even though Prussia was repeatedly able to pluck victory out of the jaws of defeat. Frederick’s ability to march, fight one enemy, counter-march, fight another enemy, and still be able to march again, was the factor that allowed Prussia to survive.

By 1762, Great Britain began withdrawing its financial support for Prussia, and the Prussian army dwindled to almost nothing. It looked like Frederick the Great had finally been beaten. He was only saved by the death of the Russian Tsarina. The new Tsar, Peter III, was a great admirer of Frederick the Great, and upon becoming Tsar, Peter III immediately offered peace terms, and withdrew from the war. Without Russia, the alliance lost its momentum.

In 1763, hostilities between Great Britain and France ended with the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain gained possession of France’s territories in North America in exchange for a few important islands in the Caribbean to France. The European hostilities ended the same year with all borders being returned to their pre-war boundaries, confirming Prussia’s possession of Silesia. After surviving the assault of most of its neighbors, Prussia became the dominant German state, and the Holy Roman Empire headed by Austria became a living relic of a past age.

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Kendo is Japanese for “the way of the sword.” It is a martial art that concentrates on developing the use of the Japanese samurai sword under a controlled and safe manner. Kendo is often referred to as Japanese fencing. In Kendo, the deadly Japanese Samurai sword has been replaced by a relatively harmless “shinai” made of bamboo staves bound together with leather strips, and special rules of attack have been imposed to insure that the particpants will be safe. Although the deadly aspect of traditional Japanese sword training has been reduced, the commitment to mental and physical discipline and dedication has not changed. Kendo teaches reverence to teachers, to traditions, to community, and to self.

Robert the Bruce is remembered as the savior of the Scottish nation. Born in 1274, the Bruce (as he is often called) grew up in the English Court of Edward I after the family lands were seized by the John Baliol who was concerned by the Bruce family claim to the throne. In 1296, Edward I invaded Scotland and defeated the weak and unpopular John Baliol. Baliol submitted to Edward I and handed over Scotland (Car Hire Scotland) in disgrace. When Robert the Bruce asked to be named King of Scotland as a reward for his support of the English invasion and based on his superior claim to the throne, Edward is reported to have responded, “Do you think I have nothing to do but to conquer kingdoms for you?” Edward I removed everything that had anything to do with Scottish government, and demanded oaths of allegiance from all the Scottish lords.

When Edward I returned to England, he imagined that he had easily subdued Scotland. He was to discover that Scotland would not be conquered so easily. Before Edward I had settled down to celebrate his victory, word arrived of a rebellion started by a brash Scottish knight named William Wallace. Wallace and the Scots rose up against the English forces, and defeated a powerful English army at Stirling Bridge. Although Wallace and his troops were later defeated in 1298 at Falkirk, the battle for Scottish independence continued. In 1305, Wallace was captured, sent to England and executed as a traitor to the Crown. The movie ”Braveheart” is based upon the life of William Wallace.

During the initial stage of the War for Scottish Independence, it appears that Robert the Bruce was not an active supporter of the Scottish cause, and was perhaps even an active supporter of Edward I. This is because John Comyn, another Scottish lord with a claim to the throne, was the acknowledged leader of the rebellion. A victory for the rebels meant defeat of the Bruce claim to the Scottish Crown.

In 1306, Robert the Bruce committed an act that sealed his fate. During a meeting at Greyfriar’s Kirk at Dumfries intended to heal the rift between the Bruces and the Comyns, Bruce brazenly murdered John Comyn before the altar of the Church. With this act, Robert the Bruce removed the only other Scottish lord who could claim the throne of Scotland. It also earned him the hatred of the Comyn Clan, and excommunication from the Church. In March of 1306, Robert the Bruce declared himself King of Scotland. Thus began the second stage of the War of Scottish Independence.

Many battles were fought, and most of them were won by the English. But when Edward I died, his son Edward II proved to be a weak and ineffectual leader. Bruce was able to take control of most of Scotland, and began to raid England. By 1314, Edward II was forced into action, and took a large army back into Scotland. On June 24, 1314, heavily outnumbered by the English army, Robert the Bruce defeated the English at Bannockburn.

Although the next 500 years saw continuous fighting between England and Scotland, never again would Scotland be conquered and occupied by the English. Eventually a descendant of Robert the Bruce, James VI of Scotland became James I of England, uniting the countries under a common monarch.

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The protector of an offshore trust is a very important position for asset protection purposes. In many jurisdictions, trust laws allow the appointment of a Protector to perform very limited actions regarding a trust. One of the most common powers is the power to remove and appoint the Trustee of the trust. In addition the Protector often has the power to appoint auditors and financial controllers for the assets of the trust and oversee the general management of the Trust. Many nations require individuals who are Trustees of foreign trusts to disclose their positions. This can often result in unwanted attention, and loss of privacy. Since privacy is often one of the key elements of a good asset protection plan, avoiding detrimental disclosures is advantageous. Since the Protector is not a Trustee, and does not have the powers of a Trustee, generally an individual does not need to disclose their position as Protector of a foreign trust.

A last will and testament is a document prepared by a living person with capacity directing how he or she wishes to have his or her property distributed after death. The origin of the concept that an individual can direct the disposition of his or her affairs after death can be traced back to Roman times. It is interesting to note that with the fall of the Roman Empire the idea that an individual could direct the disposition of his or her affairs after death fell into disuse whereupon the authority to make such determinations rested solely with the ruler. The concept was reinstated by Henry the VIII in 1540 with the Statute of Wills in which individuals were allowed to devise property according to the disposition described in their wills “somewhat” free of government interference and/or control.

The technical definition of Probate is the legal process in which a deceased individual’s last will and testament is submitted to the court for approval, and the appointment of an executor or administrator to carry out the terms of the will, subject to limitations of the laws in the jurisdiction. However, the term probate now has expanded to include virtually all aspects of the disposition of the estate of a deceased whether by will or intestacy, and sometimes even to include non-testamentary issues (that is not dealing with a deceased person’s estate) such as guardianship, powers of attorney, etc.